The Public Relations Practitioner as Cultural Intermediary Essay Example

The Public Relations Practitioner as Cultural Intermediary Essay Example The Public Relations Practitioner as Cultural Intermediary Essay The Public Relations Practitioner as Cultural Intermediary Essay symbolic interactionism, and ethnomethodology. Babbie and Mouton (2001:33) conclude that regardless of the related metatheory, the primary aim of interpretivism stays directed towards understanding: â€Å"understanding of individuals in terms of their own interpretations of reality and understanding of society in terms of the meanings which people ascribe to the social practices in that society†. Following will be a discussion of hermeneutics as a related metatheory to interpretivism. 3. 2. 1. 1 Hermeneutics as a metatheory The term â€Å"hermeneutics† is defined as â€Å"the science and methodology of interpreting texts† by the Encarta Dictionary (S. a. ). De Vos, Schultze and Patel (2005:6) states only hermeneutics as a related metatheory to interpretive social science, but Babbie and Mouton (2001:30) lists several related metatheories such as hermeneutics, symbolic interactionism, and ethnomethodology. In the process of understanding the nature of human inquiry, Dilthey used the term â€Å"hermeneutics† increasingly. â€Å"In the same way that we understand the meaning of texts through interpretation, we should aim to interpret the ideas, purposes and other mental states expressed in the world of human action† (Babbie and Mouton, 2001:31). De Vos, Schultze and Patel (2005:7) agree that â€Å"true meaning is rarely simple or obvious on the surface; one reaches it only through a detailed study of the text, contemplating its many messages and seeking the connections among its parts†. Babbie and Mouton (2001:33) further states that in an idealist epistemology, data collection should not be confined to observable behaviour, but should also include descriptions of people’s intentions, meanings, and reasons. Culture in this instance will substitute â€Å"people† in Babbie and Mouton’s definition. The emphasis thus is on interpretive understanding of the culture. Concluded from the information stated above, an interpretive approach would be most suitable to research the role of the public relations manager as cultural intermediary. . Postmodernism, globalization and culture in communication: a brief discussion 4. 1 Postmodern communication At approximately the same time that South Africa proceeded to become a democracy, a new movement, postmodernism, emerged. Postmodernism embodies a complicated term, which has only emerged as an area of academic study since the mid-1980’s and is a general, wide-ranging term which is applied to literature, art, philosophy, architecture, fiction, cultural and literary criticism, and communication. Postmodernism is largely a reaction to the assumed certainty of scientific (objective) efforts to explain reality. In essence, it stems from a recognition that reality is not simply mirrored in human understanding of it, but rather, is constructed as the mind tries to understand its own particular and personal reality. For this reason, postmodernism is highly sceptical of explanations which claim to be valid for all groups, cultures, traditions, or races, and instead focuses on the relative truths of each person. Postmodernism relies on concrete experience over abstract principles, knowing always that the outcome of ones own experience will necessarily be fallible and relative, rather than certain and universal. According to Steyn (2002:25), the postmodernism approach to society (and the individual’s place in it) comprises many different elements of which the most prominent aspect is the fragmented nature of society. Postmodernism is, to a large extent, a rejection of modernism. Whilst modernism is optimistic about the future and embraces progress and humanist value, postmodernism take a cynical approach towards these â€Å"values†. In addition, De Vos, Schultze and Patel (2005:8) emphasize that modernism has confidence in technology and science whilst postmodernism attacks this faith in science â€Å"by questioning its capacity to generate truth, in part because, like all human communications, it is dependent on language, which is socially constructed, and, as such, distorts reality†. Considering the above and the questions posed in the introduction of this assignment, it could be argued that the disarray in the contemporary corporate society is largely due to the postmodern reflection on society and not as such due to any hierarchal incompetence. For the past three decades, postmodernism dominated the cultural and intellectual scene in many fields throughout the world. The postmodern assault produced new social and political theories, as well as theoretical attempts to define the multifaceted aspects of the postmodern phenomenon itself, which in turn, seems aptly applicable to the current multi-cultural experience in South Africa. 4. 2 Globalization and communication Globalization refers to the compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole (www. sociology. emory. du). In thought and action, it makes the world a single place. What it means to live in this place, and how it must be ordered, become universal questions. These questions receive different answers from individuals and societies that define their position in relation to both a system of societies and the shared properties of humankind from very different perspectives. Globalization broadly refers to the expansion of global linkages, the organization of social life on a global scale, and the growth of a global consciousness, hence to the consolidation of a world society. In concept, globalization is, contrary to contemporary belief, not a new one. The modern world-system originated around 1500. In parts of Western Europe, a long-term crisis of feudalism gave way to technological innovation and the rise of market institutions. Advances in production and incentives for long-distance trade stimulated Europeans to reach other parts of the globe. Superior military strength and means of transportation enabled them to establish economic ties with other regions that favoured the accumulation of wealth in the European core. While the Europeans started with only small advantages, they exploited these to reshape the world in their capitalist image. The world as a whole is now devoted to endless accumulation and profit seeking on the basis of exchange in a market that treats goods and labour alike as commodities. (www. sociology. emory. edu). The magnitude and the impact of globalization on world trade is illustrated by Friedman (2005:181-182) who developed and interesting perspective that, due to globalization, the world has become â€Å"flat†. In the last decade of the twentieth century, several parts of the world were making the transition from a closed economy to a free market system, such as China, India, Russia, and Eastern Europe. By 2000, the â€Å"global economic world,† the amount of the world’s population participating in global trade, reached six billion people, compared to 2. 5 billion in 1985. As it happened, this coincided with the digital revolution that was â€Å"flat tening† the world, thus not only leveling the playing field, but also bringing that field directly to these new players†. Philosophers such as Marshall McLuhan (1911-1980) predicted, if not recognized, globalization in the way society is experiencing it today, as early as the 1960’s. It was during this time period when McLuhan both announced the existence of a â€Å"global village†, and predicted the intensification of the world community to its present expression. â€Å"If the work of the city is the remaking or translating of man into a more suitable form than his nomadic ancestors achieved, then might not our current translation of our entire lives into the spiritual form of information seem to make of the entire globe, and of the human family, a single consciousness? (McLuhan, as quoted by Kappelman, www. leaderu. com). All of this was supposed at a time when television was still in its infancy, and the personal computer was almost twenty years into the future. Globalization in its current status is largely due to interconnectedness via satellite and cable connection. The majority of mass- and interpersonal communication today is transmitted through the effective use of information technology. The result, according to Hannerz (2001:62) is that a great many kinds of actors now operate, if not literally globally, then at least transnational. There are more â€Å"ethnic diasporas† than ever before, dispersed membership groups, multinational business corporations and transnational occupational communities, each one engaged in â€Å"its own particular way in the management of some part of contemporary culture†. Hannerz’ view underlines the importance of a public relations practitioner acting as a cultural intermediary within a globalized society. 4. 3 Multi-cultural communication Ramphele (2008:112-113) states that â€Å"all South Africans are newcomers to democracy. We (South Africans) must acknowledge our authoritarian political heritage. It will not simply go away in the face of a democratic national constitution. Building a participatory, inclusive democratic culture is a long term process of cultural change. Schools, homes, communities and the workplace have distinctive and mutually supportive roles to play in this†. Ramphele’s statement addresses the topic of this assignment in more than one aspect. Not only is South Africa as a democratic union in its infancy in comparison to global democratic practices, but is the way in which we approach, and are approached by the international community, a new-fangled experience. South Africans as a whole have to deal with its own internal multi-cultural aspects, as well as the exposure to international cultures simultaneously, which is more apparent as to why a public relations manager should be able to act as a cultural intermediary. George (2003:Online) highlight this aspect, stating that by â€Å"understanding the cultural uniqueness of a country enables a public relations practitioner to identify the most effective message, format, channel of communication, and spokesperson to deliver that message. It is noticeable from the above that, in order to communicate effectively to its publics, the public relations practitioner must be able to understand and interpret multicultural identities. 4. 3. 1 Culture and cultural identities Samovar, Porter and McDaniel (2007:123-125) argues that cultural identity is a focal element in intercultural communication. An individual’s culture shapes his or her understanding and expectations as to which is the correct communication practices for various social settings – some which may be appropriate to one culture, may be inappropriate in another. Issues of identity can be expected to remain – and perhaps become more – complex as multiculturalism increasingly characterizes contemporary society. It is clear, however, that the old understanding of a fixed cultural identity or ethnicity is outdated, and identity is rapidly becoming more of and â€Å"articulated negotiation between what you call yourself and what other people are willing to call you†. But regardless of what form they may take or how they are achieved, your identities will remain a consequence of culture. Cultural differences appear in many ways and in many forms along a set of key dimensions. Nolan (1999:5-6) list six variables on which cultural differences can be distinguished: Perceptions: People from different cultures do not necessarily see the same things, even when everyone is looking in the same di rection. Interpretations: People do not select, interpret, or remember what they see in the same way, even when they see the same thing. Facts: Because people from different cultures have different definitions of the situation, they use different pieces of information in their thinking. Goals: People from different cultures may have quite different purposes or destinations in mind. Methods: Even when destinations are the same, people may have different ways of getting there. Values: People from different cultures apply very different standards in their evaluations of individuals, situations, behaviors and outcomes. Although Nolan’s variables appear to be overtly simplified, these variables could be a good starting point when approaching multi-cultural studies. However, the most popular advance to cultural studies stems from the work of anthropologist, Edward T. Hall who did pioneering work in multi-cultural research such as proxemics, a study of perception and the use of space between gender and culture. For example: there are important cultural rules and boundaries between the sexes, which mean we cannot move about as we would wish to think we can. Different cultures have differing norms and attitudes towards personal space and how closely people stand to each other when communicating. More intimate communications have different norms. If someone breaks the norm in any given situation it might be interpreted as threatening or unfriendly. Hall also found that different cultures have different norms to do with time, friendship, business, written and oral agreements. Spatial zones are different for women and men. Women initially approach more closely, prefer side-by-side conversations, allow other women to be closer than men, whilst men have more face-to-face conversations, and tend to stand closer to women than women feel comfortable with. ( onepine. info/mcult2. tm) More appropriate to this assignment though, is Hall’s conceptualization of high and low context cultural factors. In essence, in a high-context culture, there are many contextual elements that help people to understand the rules. As a result, much is taken for granted. This can be very confusing for a person who does not understand the unwritten rules of the specific culture. In a low-context culture, very little is taken for granted. Whilst this means that more explanation is needed, it also means there is less chance of misunderstanding, particularly when visitors are present. The application of Hall’s high- and low-context cultures is explained in table 2: Table 2: Hall’s high and low context culture Factor High-context culture Low-context culture Overtness of messagesMany covert and implicit messages, with use of metaphor and reading between the linesMany overt and explicit messages that is simple and clear Locus of control and attribution for failureInner locus of control and personal acceptance for failure Outer locus of control and blame of others for failure Use of non-verbal ommunicationMuch nonverbal communicationMore focus on verbal communication than body language Expression of reactionReserved, inward reactionsVisible, external, outward reaction Cohesion and separation of groupsStrong distinction between in-group and out-group Strong sense of familyFlexible and open grouping patterns, changing as needed People bonds Strong people bonds with affiliation to family and communityFragile bonds between people with little sense of loyalty Level of commitment to relationshipsHigh commitment to long-term relationships Relationship more important than taskLow commitment to relationship Task more important than relationships Flexibility of time Time is open and flexible Process is more important than productTime is highly organized Product is more important than process (http://changingminds. org/explanations/culture/hall_culture. htm) Applying the preceding two concepts as is to South Africa’s multi-cultural community would be rather complicated. The diverse compilation of cultures in South Africa simply does not allow for a â€Å"yes or no† answer. It would be required to analyze each of the eleven cultures in the country, including the free inflow of neighboring nationalities, in order to devise a suitable paradigm from which an applicable variable could be devised. This seems a rather daunting challenge. How then, to proceed to an acceptable, predictable, and definable course? Hannerz (2001:58) suggest that â€Å"we need a counter-image to that of the cultural mosaic, one that does not take for granted the boundedness of cultures and their simple relationship to populations and territories, but allows as a point of departure a more open, interconnected world. † To achieve that, and to move above the constraints of a multi-cultural collective, the student consulted Lull’s concept of a â€Å"superculture† (see fig. 1). According to Lull (2001:132-163), contemporary cultural conditions â€Å"appear to only exacerbate the confusion, isolation, and existential despair. The historically unparalleled development of communications technology and the sweep of globalization that surrounds us today are changing the very nature and meaning of culture. A superculture refers to a cultural mode that is above other modes, has a higher rank, quality and abundance than is reflected in other conceptions of culture. † It certainly exceeds the norms which typify and limit traditional ways of thinking about culture. Supercultures are composed in part of symbolic content that is made available by super media. The question immediately rises as to how cultural identities, for instance those officially recognized within South Africa’s geographical borders, fit into the concept of a superculture? The answer can be derived to from Lull’s explanation: â€Å"The super culture is the cultural matrix that individuals create for themselves in a world where access to ‘distant’ cultural resources has expanded enormously. At the same time, however, the superculture embodies traditional or ‘close’ cultural resources too – the values and social practices characteristic of ‘local’ cultures as they are learned and reproduced by individuals and group. The essence of the supercultures resides in the dynamic interfaces that link and mediates the available cultural spheres. † (Lull, 2001:132) Figure 1: Major components of Lull’s superculture (Lull, 2001: 139-157) To conclude the section on culture: in order to appropriately apply communication between multi-cultural identities, which in this instance signify the public relation practitioner and his or her publics, the student propose the implementation of Grunig’s two-way symmetrical model which â€Å"use communication to negotiate with publics, resolve conflict, and promote mutual understanding and respect between the organization and its public(s). † (http://iml. jou. ufl. edu). 5. Conclusion Friedman (2005:324-325) noted that â€Å"to reduce a country’s economic performance to culture alone is ridiculous, but to analyze a country’s economic performance without reference to culture, is equally ridiculous. As the world goes flat (globalize) , and more and more of the tools of collaboration get distributed and commoditized, the gap between cultures that have the will, the way and the focus to quickly adopt these new tools and apply them, and those that do not, will matter more. The differences between the two will become more amplified. Cultures that is open and willing to change, have huge advantage in this world. † Not only is Friedman’s statement applicable to a global economy, but is it also applicable to the global interaction of public relations practitioners. In addition, Jansoozi and Koper (2006:219-225) states that â€Å"public relations communication techniques have been forced to change as a result of globalization. The biggest challenge for public relations practitioners will be crossing language and cultural barriers. Often the subtleties of cultural difference are overlooked in the multinational’s own home country. Business organizations are realizing the importance of intercultural communication, even within the same national boundaries. Immigration and guest workers have altered the homogeneity of many countries and cultures. † It is within this framework (and with the support of quotations from authoritive source quoted in this assignment) that the student concludes: a purely western form of public relations practices no longer exists. As a result of globalization and the multi-national exposure that accompanies globalization, the public relations practitioner has inevitably become, amongst other, a cultural intermediary. The contemporary public relations practitioner’s communication is no longer restrained to the geographical, economic and cultural boundaries of his or her own country. Not only is the public relations practitioner able to communicate instantaneously on a global magnitude, but it is required of the practitioner to understand and interpret the culture of the publics which he or she communicates with. Global interaction demands that the public relations practitioner be aware of and implement trans-national customs and practices in the communication process. 6. Recommendation Exploring a topic such as culture and the effects it has on the process of communication globally, opens to a vast field of research. There are several factors that need to be explored in such a research project. For instance, the dynamics of a post-modern society, a globalized economic structure and the multi-cultural identities that accompanies such an economic structure, which all cannot possibly come to its fulfilment in a ten-page assignment. As Ihator (2000:44) clearly states: â€Å"The recognition of the cultural patterns of the world may be one positive stem in the understanding of the global publics. It behooves, therefore, international PR practitioners and researchers to use knowledge gained from various academic disciplines to adequately and effectively communicate with global constituencies†. Bibliography (Author unknown). S. a. Dictionary results – Hermeneutics [Online]. Available from: http://encarta. msn. com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults. [Accessed: 05/04/2007]. (Author unknown). S. a. Edward T. Hall – The silent language [Online]. Available from: onepine. info/mcult2. htm. [Accessed: 10/04/2008]. (Author unknown). S. a. Globalization issues [Online]. Available from: sociology. emory. edu/globalization/issues01. html. [Accessed: 10/04/2008]. (Author unknown). S. a. Globalization theories [Online]. Available from: sociology. emory. edu/globalization/theories01. html. [Accessed: 10/04/2008]. (Author unknown). S. a. Three Major Perspectives in Sociology [Online]. Available from: cliffsnotes. com/WileyCDA/CliffsReviewTopic/Three-Major-Perspectives-in-Sociology. topicArticleId-26957,articleId-26837. html. [Accessed: 05/06/2008]. (Author unknown). S. a. Science Quotes [Online]. Available from: quotelady. com/subjects/science. html. [Accessed: 05/06/2008]. (Author unknown). S. a. Sir William Lawrence Bragg [Online]. Available from: britannica. com. [Accessed: 26/04/2008]. (Author unknown). S. a. The Importance of the Four Models of Public Relations [Online]. Available from: http://iml. jou. ufl. edu/projects/Fall99/Westbrook/models. htm. [Accessed: 07/03/2008]. BABBIE, E. MOUTON, J. 2001. The practice of social research. South African ed. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. DE VOS, A. S. , SCHULZE, S. PATEL, L. 2005. The sciences and the professions. In: De Vos, A. S. (ed. ) Research at grass roots: for the social sciences and human service professions. 3rd ed. Pretoria: Van Schaik:3-26. FRIEDMAN, T. L. 2005. The world is flat a brief history of the twenty-first century. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. GEORGE, A. M. 2003. Teaching culture: The challenges and opportunities of international public relations. Business communication quarterly, 66[Online]. Available from: www. questia. com. [Accessed: 01/06/08]. GUDYKUNST, W. B. 1993. Toward a theory of effective interpersonal and intergroup communication. International and intercultural communication annual, 17:33-71. HANNERZ, U. 2001. Thinking about culture in a global ecumene. In: LULL, J. (ed. ) Culture in the communication age. London: Routledge:54-71. IHATOR, A. 2000. Understanding the cultural patterns of the world – an imperative in implementing strategic international PR programs. Public Relations Quaterly, Winter:38-44. (Class handout: Public Relations Management IV, 24/05/2008). JANOOZI, J. KOPER, E. 2006. Implications of globalization for the public relations practice. Comunicacao e Sociedade, 8, 2005:219-225 [Online]. Available from: revcom2. portcom. intercom. org. br/index. php/cs_um/ article/ viewFile/4734/4448. [Accessed: 05/06/2008]. KAPPELMAN, T. 2001. Marshall McLuhan: â€Å"The Medium is the Message [Online]. Available from: leaderu. com/orgs/probe/docs/mcluhan. html#text2. [Accessed: 06/08/2007]. LEARY, M. R. MILLER, R. S. 2000. Self-presentational perspectives on personal relationships. In: Ickes, W. Duck, W. (eds. ) The social psychology of personal relationships. New York: Wiley:129-155. LULL, J. 2001. Superculture for the communication age. In: Lull, J. (ed. ) Culture in the communication age. London: Routledge: 132-163. McCLELLAND, K. 2000. Introduction to theories [Online]. Available from: http://web. grinnell. edu/courses/soc/s00/soc111-01/IntroTheories. html. [Accessed: 01/06/2008]. NOLAN, R. W. 1999. Communicating and Adapting across Cultures: Living and Working in the Global Village [Online]. Available from: www. questia. com. Accessed: 20/06/2008. PAPASTEFANOU, N. 2008. Assignment 2: the public relations practitioner as cultural intermediary. Tshwane University of Technology: Pretoria. PAPASTEFANOU, N. 2007. Module 1: communication research and theory (CSC400T). Pretoria: Tshwane University of Technology. PAPASTEFANOU, N. 2008. Module 2: culture and related issues. Tshwane

A Delocalized Electron Defined in Chemistry

A Delocalized Electron Defined in Chemistry A delocalized electron is an electron in an  atom, ion or molecule not associated with any single atom or a single covalent bond. In a ring structure, delocalized electrons are indicated by drawing a circle rather than single and double bonds. This means the electrons are equally likely to be anywhere along the chemical bond.Delocalized electrons contribute to the conductivity of the atom, ion, or molecule. Materials with many delocalized electrons tend to be highly conductive. Delocalized Electron Examples In a benzene molecule, for example, the electrical forces on the electrons are uniform across the molecule. The delocalization produces what is called a resonance structure. Delocalized electrons are also commonly seen in solid metals, where they form a sea of electrons that are free to move throughout the material. This is why metals are typically excellent electrical conductors. In the crystal structure of a diamond, the four outer electrons of each carbon atom participate in covalent bonding (are localized). Contrast this with bonding in graphite, another form of pure carbon. In graphite, only three of the four outer electrons are covalently bonded to other carbon atoms. Each carbon atom has a delocalized electron that participates in chemical bonding  but is free to move throughout the plane of the molecule. While the electrons are delocalized, graphite is a planar shape, so the molecule conducts electricity along the plane, but not perpendicular to it.

Mockery in Order Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Mockery in Order - Essay Example Therefore, the development of control structures is useful in maintaining order as well as enforcing discouraging protocols. The establishment of order has its own draw backs which are useful in the creation of controls that are useful in the maintenance of orderliness in the society. The reduction of freedom of choice to a restricted module or activity is the principal drawback of order creation. In a bid to create uniformity and orderliness in society, there is the creation of laws, rules, and regulations which are useful for the development of the systematic way. Military personnel are easily identified because of the set of the uniform they wear; the same applies to police service and school going children. Some of the personnel may view the uniform as an infringement on rights to dress as they wish which is the paradox of order. According to Barthes, the infringement of one's rights in the army through uniforms and the set of rules is a mockery to order (Barthes 40). He refers to submission in the army as fanatic and a blind act (Barthes 40). Think of students in uniform! Uniform gives an impression of equity and order in school, but does it mean that they love wearing it? A clear no. Some of the students will always abuse the uniform. As a result, dressing chords are implemented to enforce order of which later results to strikes and the so called â€Å"cases of indiscipline†. What a mockery of order! The students feel that the order created infringes their rights and forces them to adopt what they cannot live to. In a football match, the separation of the two groups of fans and supporters help in the creation of order. Imagine, that there was no separation between the groups. What could be the consequence of such an action? There would be strife and fighting within the group leading to disharmony and strife. The separation of the groups leads to the creation of order in the match. The separation is a creation of that reduces or limits freedom of movement between the two groups. In the real sense, human beings need to interact with each other, to enjoy freedom of movement. This privilege is lost in order for the order to exist in the match. The existence of a physical barrier separating the two groups is obviously an infringement on the right for movement and association that is accorded to all human beings. Despite the success of the physical barrier, there are still problems facing maintenance of order in situations such as play interruption as a result of pitch invasion by supporters as wi tnessed in matches in Italian and Russian football leagues. Additionally fans may clash in the street with some fans obtaining injures or even death in the street confrontation. The solution to the problem has always been the designation of routes to reduce meeting of the two supporter groups. The route designation minimizes freedom and association movements. The restriction of movement and association is the price of order creation; thus, it creates a scenario in order to gain publicity, and show a need for order creation. According to the chaos theory, in order for the order to be created disorder must first exist and vice versa. The creation of order, is based on, the drive to make an organised structure from, a disorganised state. The creation and innovation experienced in the world is as a result of need for order in all spheres of life. It is vital to state that the need for order

Coca Cola Company and its Product Modifying Method Essay

Coca Cola Company and its Product Modifying Method - Essay Example Currently, Coca Cola is undergoing a series of transformations specifically in the production of its products with the aim of ensuring it meets the set standards provided by the FDA. The company is now looking into the details of most of its recipes in order to ensure that it produces beverages that are in line with the recommendations and regulations of FDA. Given that research findings opine caffeine as well as tannin mixtures with cancer related causes, people are taking a step forward towards doing away with products said to have such ingredients in their contents (59). Change of such consumer market has seen most companies head towards the verge of losing a large market base. However, in order to ensure continued profitability, Coca Cola which happens to be one of the world’s largest producer and distributor of beverage products resolve to come into terms with the FDA standards which require companies to observe health regulations and recommendations.On March 7, 2012, Coc a Cola Company asserted that its use of caramel coloring in preparing its drinks has always resolved to put into consideration the necessary requirements and thus is safe. Douglas Karas, FDA spokesperson stated that FDA is working round the clock and ensuring that companies like Coca Cola and Pepsi provide their consumers with quality beverages that pose no challenge to the users. According to Beverage Digest, one of the most active industry trackers, PepsiCo and Coca Cola hold the largest percentage.

Unfair Dismissal Legislation

Unfair Dismissal Legislation In this paper we will examine the tension between unfair (employee) dismissal legislation and the autonomy of managers to run their departments as they see fit. Interestingly, the question refers to managers right to manage their employees: It should be stated at the outset, unlike the rights afforded to employees by legislation and the common law, which are enforceable rights per se; there is no such right enshrined in the law to protect the autonomy of managers. It is also interesting to note that the question does not ask us to d iscuss the degree to which unfair dismissal legislation takes away managers right to manage their employees effectively or well, or ask us to comment upon whether or not the suppression of managers autonomy is a good or a bad thing for the development of a healthy and effective commercial workplace. We will argue in this essay that such an assessment is central to the question of this paper. After all, for example, the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, which seeks (inter alia) to regulate the conduct of Police Officers, might well be seen to take away rights of the police to arrest citizens, but only does so to protect the citizen from unconstitutional and unacceptable authoritarian practices. Likewise, in the case of unfair dismissal legislation, if the effect is to prevent poor management practice, then this cannot be seen as a negative thing. The worry is that such legislation will interfere with good management, by creating expectations in the minds of employees regarding the standard acceptable processes which govern their employment and as such, might prevent managers from taking the initiative to be creative and progressive in their management approach. The question therefore boils down to whether or not the current unfair dismissal legislation in the UK is sufficiently flexible to allow management creativity to blossom to the advantage of all stakeholders in the employee-management-employer relationship. Unfair dismissal of employees is governed by Part X of the Employment Rights Act 1996, as amended by Part 3 of the Employment Act 2002. The right to not be unfairly dismissed is defined is s94 of the 1996 Act, and s95 of the same act outlines the circumstances which are capable of giving rise to a breach of this employment right. Hepple and Morris (2002) p255 comment upon the amendments to the unfair dismissal legislation introduced by the Employment Act 2002: â€Å"[T]he new statutory standard and modified disciplinary procedures, broad in conception but minimalist in their requirements, ‘are so rudimentary in nature that they afford little protection to employees[and] ‘fall significantly short of the requirements of the current ACAS Code and of the standards of reasonableness developed by tribunals†. This would seem to suggest that this legislation has had little impact upon curtailing the right of managers to manage their employees, especially in light of the fact that there is no significant deterrent effect arising from the remedy contained in s34(6) of the 2002 Act, which only entitles an unfairly dismissed employee to four weeks pay compensation. It also seems apparent that s34(2) of the Employment Act 2002 has reversed the case law decision of Polkey v A. E. Dayton Services [1988] in which it was decided that employers (and, more importantly, their managers) should be reasonable in their choice and use of employee dismissal procedures. S34(2) of the Employment Act 2002 introduced s98A into the Employment Act 1996, subsection 2 of which states: â€Å"[F]ailure by an employer to follow a procedure in relation to the dismissal of an employee shall not be regarded for the purposes of section 98(4)(a) as by itself making the employers action unreasonable if he shows that he would have decided to dismiss the employee if he had followed the procedure.† Again, there is nothing in this section which would suggest that managers rights to employ their own styles of disciplinary procedure have been curtailed: As long as the procedures employed lead to a decision identical to that which would have been generated through adherence to the standard dismissal procedures contained in the UK Employment Acts. It might be argued that that this procedural latitude will not be enforced to its full extent, and therefore that employers and their managers cannot rely upon its provisions to escape liability for nonprocedural conforman ce, but, as Collins (2004) reports: â€Å"The potential width of this exception should not be underestimated†. In regards to this amendment and also to the introduction of the ACAS code under the Employment Act 2002, Smith and Morton (2006) write: â€Å"In spite of government declarations, it is not clear how the ACAS Code and case law can impose a higher procedural standard than the statutory procedures in an unfair dismissal claim, although the test of a reasonable employer (whose action will fall within the range of reasonable responses) remains. Henceforth an employer defending a dismissal may argue that adherence to a procedure above the statutory minimum or the ACAS Code would not have led to a different outcome.† It would therefore seem that, under the new unfair dismissal regime, employers have even more latitude to escape liability for unfair dismissal by procedural unfairness and therefore, even less reason to reign in their managers by insisting on extra training or standard management practices. It should also be noted that under the Employment Tribunals (Constitution and Rules of Procedure) Regulations 2001, the maximum award available to an employer from an employee who unsuccessfully brings a claim in the employment tribunal has been substantially increased as it now, by virtue of the Employment Tribunal Regulations 2004, can also include non-legal preparation costs. This must serve as a deterrent to employees from making frivolous and/or poorly constructed claims for unfair dismissal. Ans so, our analysis of the UK legislative framework on unfair dismissal all point to a conclusion that this regime does not have any significant effect upon the right of managers to manage their employees, so long as the procedures utilized are synonymous by result. However, there is often a big difference between the legal impact of legislation and its cultural effect. Let us now perform a literature review of several key sources in the field of employee management to see if the practical and real effect of the amended unfair dismissal legislation has been to curtail the creativity of managers or otherwise interfere with their right to manage their employees, effectively or otherwise. The first point which can be identified from the literature is that the legislation on unfair dismissal has had different effects on different sized of business. Whilst the research is relatively out of date, it seems clear that the small business sector has been the least affected by the formal dismissal regime. As Harrison et al (1998) write: â€Å"The major studies (e.g. Dickens et al., 1985) are now dated and there have been few attempts to up-date earlier assessments of the impact of unfair dismissal legislation on small firms (e.g. Clifton and Tatton-Brown, 1979; Daniel and Stilgoe, 1978; Evans et al., 1985). This research and the periodic WIRS surveys (Millward et al., 1992) indicated that small businesses were less likely to have formal disciplinary procedures than larger businesses. This would suggest that small business managers autonomy to manage in their own way has not been significantly ‘taken away by the UKs unfair dismissal legislation and its enshrined standar d procedures. This is confirmed by the findings of a case study analysis by Harrison et al (1998) who found that: â€Å"The presence of a formal written disciplinary procedure does not, of itself, ensure that it is applied/observed by all managers, nor that common disciplinary standards will be applied to all employees, or even to all employees in the same occupation, grade, etc. For example, two instances were found where the senior site manager in multi-site companies in the catering sector was not familiar with the requirements of their companies written procedures. Harrison et al (1998) also found, from their interviews, that managers in this sector took a flexible approach to disciplinary action. The problem with this is that the approach is likely to differ from manager to manager with the result that the only way companies can maintain consistency is not to change, remove or replace senior managers: â€Å"[T]here was evidence from many of the interviews of a â€Å"flexible approach† being taken to disciplinary actionThis â€Å"flexibility† plainly has its strengths, but it inevitably also raises issues of perceived consistency or inconsistency among employees of actions taken by different managers [I]ts potential effect on both employee morale and on potential unfair dismissal claims and outcomes, was a principal reason why many organizations have restricted the right to dismiss to senior managers.† Interestingly however, the interviews conducted across multi-site organizations revealed that â€Å"managers were able to draw on the wider resources of their organizations, including the advice and expertise of HR/personnel specialists. In some cases these specialists became involved in helping line managers to handle disciplinary cases, usually with the effect of avoiding major discrepancies.† This would suggest that the UK unfair dismissal legislation has had a noticeable impact upon the rights of managers in larger organizations to manage their employees, the procedures clearly being taken seriously if outside help is being drafted in regularly. In pages 457-458, Harrison et al (1998) discuss the effect of unfair dismissal legislation on ‘management style. They confirm our earlier conclusion that Managers are still acting autonomously despite the unfair dismissal legislation: â€Å"There are acknowledged difficulties in attempting to categorise management styles in organisations, not least because they may vary from one manager to another, and from one situation to another.† McCabe and Rabil (2001) write convincingly on the rights of employees and the impact of these rights on employers and their managers. At page 34 they write: â€Å"‘[T]he most critical right of employees is the right to due process (Velasquez, 1982, p. 327)[D]ue process involves a system of checks and balances, it increases the objectivity of decisions‘the topic of due process in work organizations calls for much greater conceptual development, practical experimentation, and systematic research (Aram and Salipante, Jr., 1981, p. 198). Prima facie, these respective statements seem to conflict with one another: On the one hand, McCabe and Rabil talk of ‘objective decision making, and yet on the other, they talk of the need for ‘practical experimentation. However, I would argue that, rather than being mutually exclusive, these observations demonstrate the ability for fair management autonomy to co-exist with principles of due process, if not necessarily consisten cy. Managers can implement their own style of disciplinary procedures into a workplace as long as these implementations are perceived as subscribing to the princinple of due process and the end effects of these implementations are consistent with the outcomes which would have been reached under the statutory procedures. This confirms what we postulated earlier in this essay; namely, that the unfair dismissal legislation does not significantly impede effective and fair management autonomy, but simply prevents managers from managing their employees in ways which are inappropriate or do not follow the principle of ‘due process. As McCabe and Rabil (2001) write: â€Å"Not all managers know how to manage their work force effectively, nor do they all treat their employees fairly. A good due process system cannot make managers manage more fairly. It may provide a strong incentive for them to do that, but if they don t know how, the process itself will not teach them. In conclusion, I would argue that since the inception of the Employment Act 2002, which amended the unfair dismissal legislation contained in the Employment Rights Act 1996, the UKs legislation on the unfair dismissal of employees is sufficiently flexible to allow employers and their managers the autonomy to create and implement their own employee management procedures, so long as these procedures are capable of yielding fair and equitable decisions. Thus, in response to the specific question, to what degree has the unfair dismissal legislation taken away managers right to manage their employees? I would argue that it has significantly taken away this ‘right. However, in relation to the more important question, to what degree has the unfair dismissal legislation taken away managers right to manage their employees fairly and effectively? I would argue that it has not taken away this right significantly.

Non Conventional energy resources in India Essay

Non-Conventional Energy Resources in India Contents 1. Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 02 2. Wind Energy†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 03 3. Biomass Energy†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 05 4. Solar Energy†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 06 5. References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 11 Page | 1 Introduction Major of India’s energy needs are met out by thermal and other conventional forms. But these are non-renewable in nature. What will happen after say 50 years when the coal gets exhausted? So we need to find an alternative way of extracting energy. In India around 80% of the electricity is got from steam turbines run by coal. With serious concern globally and in India on the use of fossil fuels, it is important for India to start using renewable energy sources. India is the 7th largest country in the world spanning 328 million hectares and amply bestowed with renewable sources of energy. In this paper let us see ï‚ · The various kinds of renewable energy methods present in India. ï‚ · Limitations with the current system. ï‚ · Possible expansion. Our main focus in this paper will be solar energy. We would also see other major players in this field, but we will see the detailed analysis of solar energy extraction and expansion. Page | 2 Wind Energy The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s, and has significantly increased in the last few years. Wind power can be utilized for drawing water, which is an essential requirement in watering agricultural lands in the rural areas. In addition, it can be utilized for electricity generation. Although a relative newcomer to the wind industry compared with Denmark or the US, domestic policy support for wind power has led India to become the country with the fifth largest installed wind power capacity in the world. As of December 2010 the installed capacity of wind power in India was 13,065.37 MW, mainly spread across: 1. Tamil Nadu (4132.72 MW) 2. Maharashtra (1837.85 MW) 3. Karnataka (1184.45 MW) 4. Rajasthan (670.97 MW) 5. Gujarat (1432.71 MW) 6. Andhra Pradesh (122.45 MW) 7. Madhya Pradesh (187.69 MW) 8. Kerala (23.00 MW) 9. West Bengal (1.10 MW) 10. Other states (3.20 MW) It is estimated that 6,000 MW of additional wind power capacity will be installed in India by 2012. Wind power accounts for 6% of India’s total installed power capacity, and it generates 1.6% of the country’s power. Page | 3 The major drawbacks of this power system are as follows: ï‚ · Electricity production depends on- wind speed, location, season and air temperature. Hence various monitoring systems are needed and may cost expensive. ï‚ · High percentage of the hardware cost (for large WT) is mostly spent on the tower designed to support the turbine ï‚ · The total cost can be cheaper than solar system but more expensive than hydro. The state and central governments are providing various subsidies and have come up with new policies to enhance the wind power generation in India. Wind turbines are becoming larger, efficiencies and availabilities are improving and wind farm concept is becoming popular. It could be combined with solar, especially for a total self-sustainability project. The economics of wind energy is already strong, despite the relative immaturity of the industry. The downward trend in wind energy costs is predicted to continue. As the world market in wind turbines continues to boom, wind turbine prices will continue to fall. Page | 4 Biomass Energy Among the renewable energy sources, biomass plays a vital role especially in rural areas, as it constitutes the major energy source to majority of households in India. Biomass energy is the utilization of organic matter present and can be utilized for various applications. ï‚ · Biomass can be used to produce heat and electricity, or used in combined heat and power (CHP) plants. ï‚ · Biomass can also be used in combination with fossil fuels (co-firing) to improve efficiency and reduce the buildup of combustion residues. ï‚ · Biomass can also replace petroleum as a source for transportation fuels. Recent developments in India: ï‚ · India produces about 450-500 million tons of biomass per year, which is 32% of all the primary energy use in the country at present. ï‚ · The current share of biofuels in total fuel consumption is extremely low and is confined mainly to 5% blending of ethanol in gasoline, which the government has made mandatory in 10 states. Biomass energy can play a major role in reducing India’s reliance on fossil  fuels by making use of thermo-chemical conversion technologies. In addition, the increased utilization of biomass-based fuels will be instrumental in safeguarding the environment, creating new job opportunities, sustainable development and health improvements in rural areas. The integration of biomass-fuelled gasifies and coal-fired energy generation would be advantageous in terms of improved flexibility in response to fluctuations in biomass availability with lower investment costs. Page | 5 Solar Energy Solar energy is genesis for all forms of energy. This energy can be made use of in two ways the Thermal route i.e. using heat for drying, heating, cooking or generation of electricity or through the Photovoltaic route which converts solar energy in to electricity that can be used for a myriad purposes such as lighting, pumping and generation of electricity. With its pollution free nature, virtually inexhaustible supply and global distribution- solar energy is very attractive energy resource. There are two different perspectives in utilizing solar energy: 1. Solar for grid connected electricity: Grid interactive solar energy is derived from solar photovoltaic cells and CSP Plants on a large scale. The grid connection is chosen due to following reasons: ï‚ · Solar Energy is available throughout the day which is the peak load demand time ï‚ · Solar energy conversion equipment have longer life and need lesser maintenance and hence provide higher energy infrastructure security ï‚ · Low running costs & grid tie-up capital returns (Net Metering) ï‚ · Unlike conventional thermal power generation from coal, they do not cause pollution and generate clean power. ï‚ · Abundance of free solar energy throughout all parts of world (although gradually decreasing from equatorial, tropical, sub-tropical and polar regions). Can be utilized almost everywhere. 2. Solar for off-grid solutions: While, the areas with easier grid access are utilizing grid connectivity, the places where utility power is scant or too expensive to bring, have no choice but to opt for Page | 6 their own generation. They generate power from a diverse range of small local generators using both fossil fuels (diesel, gas) and locally available renewable energy technologies (solar PV, wind, small hydro, biomass, etc.) with or without its own storage (batteries). This is known as off-grid electricity. Remote power systems are installed for the following reasons: ï‚ · Desire to use renewable – environmentally safe, pollution free. ï‚ · Combining various generating options available- hybrid power generation. ï‚ · Desire for independence from the unreliable, fault prone and interrupted grid connection. ï‚ · Available storage and back-up options. ï‚ · No overhead wires- no transmission loss. ï‚ · Varied applications and products: Lighting, Communication Systems, Cooking, Heating, Pumping, Small scale industry utilization etc. The technologies present in harvesting solar power are: 1. Solar photovoltaic: Solar photovoltaic (SPV) cells convert solar radiation  (sunlight) into electricity. A solar cell is a semi-conducting device made of silicon and/or other materials, which, when exposed to sunlight, generates electricity. Solar cells are connected in series and parallel combinations to form modules that provide the required power. These are the different solar cells used: ï‚ · Crystalline Silicon solar cells (C-Si): Monocrystalline and Polycrystalline. ï‚ · Thin-film solar cells: Amorphous Silicon Solar cells (A-Si), CIGS, CdTe. PV modules are manufactured by assembling the solar cells after stringing, tabbing and providing other interconnections. Page | 7 2. Solar thermal: Solar Thermal Power systems, also known as Concentrating Solar Power systems, use concentrated solar radiation as a high temperature energy source to produce electricity using thermal route. High temperature solar energy collectors are basically of three types: ï‚ · Parabolic trough system: at the receiver can reach 400 ° C and produce steam for generating electricity. ï‚ · Power tower system: The reflected rays of the sun are always aimed at the receiver, where temperatures well above 1000 ° C can be reached. ï‚ · Parabolic dish systems: Parabolic dish systems can reach 1000 ° C at the receiver, and achieve the highest efficiencies for converting solar energy to electricity. This is the next big leap in the energy sector, but this too has its own limitations such as: ï‚ · Initial cost involved in setting up the plant is high. Also a huge amount of space is required. ï‚ · Proper sunlight is required for these systems to work effectively and efficiently. ï‚ · On a cloudy day or during nights and rainfall, this system fails to produce power, thus requiring a backup power plan, so this cannot be completely relied upon. ï‚ · Many solar grids are setup in desert areas where no grids are present, making it costly to transmit. ï‚ · Maintenance cost is quite high and a specialized technician is required for it. Page | 8 There may be some difficulties and limitations in this field, many of which can be rectified by proper government involvement during large scale implementations. India needs a brisk involvement in this field considering the facts that: ï‚ · We get plenty of sunlight due to its proximity to the equator and we receive an annual average of 4-7KWh per day for every square meter, meaning we receive a lot more sunlight than what we can use in a year, making it an abundant source of power. ï‚ · We are a poor source for conventional fuel sources. We are dependent on the Gulf countries for its oil supplies. With the oil prices skyrocketing and the reluctance of the Indian government to hike the prices of LPG and kerosene, Indian oil companies are suffering major losses. Even electric  supply in the country is unable to meet the burgeoning demands of the growing population and businesses. ï‚ · India does not have resources to pay the huge bills of the oil producers. Now there are many researches going on in this field to increase the output as well as store the produced energy in SPV cells. Also many conventional coal thermal power plants are looking forward to installing the solar thermal plant to pre heat the water to reduce the use of coal, which is an effective way to cut down the use of coal. New grids and easier and cheaper ways of power transmission are being considered owing to the fact that a huge loss in power as well as money is involved in long range transmission of this produced power. The state governments are coming up with new policies to increase their capacity and mend out their acute power crisis. For e.g., the Government of Tamil Nadu has recently unveiled its new Solar Energy Policy which aims at increasing the installed solar capacity from the current approximate of 20 MW to over 3000 MW Page | 9 by 2015. The policy aims at fixing a 6% solar energy requirement on industries and residential buildings for which incentives in the form of tax rebates and current tariff rebates of up to Rs.1 / unit will be applicable to those who comply with the Solar Energy Policy. The policy also gives an option to those industries/buildings who do not want to install rooftop solar photo-voltaic systems to invest in the government’s policy and be given the same incentives as explained above. Even many private players are slowly but steadily coming up in this sector, knowing its future value. Government is providing subsidies and aid to these private companies to increase their involvement in this sector. Solar Power India, Tata and Reliance Industries are some of the big money players who have major plans for this industry. This will give a big boost to this field as these companies can invest a lot of money in research to make the technology cheaper. This, in turn, will make solar energy accessible to the common man. As more and more people take to solar power, the costs are expected to reduce. Page | 10 References 1. â€Å"Future Perspectives for Renewable Energy in India†, November 21st 2008, Ravi Soparkar, 2. India Wind Energy, (EAI), < http://www.eai.in/ref/ae/win/win.html> 3. India Biomass Energy, (EAI),< http://www.eai.in/ref/ae/bio/bio.html> 4. India Solar energy, (EAI),< http://www.eai.in/ref/ae/sol/sol.html> 5. â€Å"Solar energy: Watts Up†, January 06th 2013, K.R.Balasubramanyam, < http://businesstoday.intoday.in/story/the-future-of-solar-power-inindia/1/190741.html> Page | 11

Athenian Democracy Essay examples - 1278 Words

Today, much of the world’s governments have converted to democracies. In the Ancient World, there was only one truly notable example of a democratic society: The City-State of Athens. This is actually the birthplace of democracy, where instead of the rich or powerful ruling, it was the citizens of the city-state that held the power. This advanced way of government was so effective and well structured, it even laid the foundations for the development of our own democracy, right here in the United States, over 2,000 years in the future. Prior to Athens’s collapse during the Peloponnesian War, it truly had an efficient and very organized system of government. Democracy in Athens can be traced back to 594 B.C.E, when Solon was given the†¦show more content†¦Cleisthenes then introduced his own reforms for Athens. He gave more power to the Assembly of Athens and less power to the aristocrats. He then divided all of Attica into ten tribes, which were called phylai. Ea ch tribe in turn was given three pieces of land, which each contained many little villages called demes. The demes all together would then participate in the government by voting for people to make up the Council. The chain of command for the government of Athens was pretty straightforward. At the very top was the strategoi, the military commanders. There were ten of these, one strategos voted for each tribe. They each served for one year, however unlike the other officials, the strategoi could be reelected to their positions an unlimited number of times. â€Å"This is based on the wisdom that frequently overhauling military leadership during a war or other national emergency can prove dangerous or even disastrous† (Nardo 46). One prominent example of this was Pericles, who was extremely popular and was reelected over twenty times before his death. The duty of the strategoi was to carry out orders given by the Council and Assembly. They also regularly carried out foreign poli cy initiatives. Next was the ruling group, also known as the prytany. The prytany provided individuals who were available at all times in case a crisis broke out and needed attention (Ancient Civilizations 26). After them was theShow MoreRelatedDemocracy And Athenian Democracy972 Words   |  4 Pages â€Å"Our constitution is called a democracy because power is in the hands not of a minority but of the whole people.† (Dale. Civilizations in History. Alternative Two. Pg. 92) This quotation perfectly summarizes Athenian democracy, a system in which all citizens had a say in affecting their daily lives. This is a contrast to Spartan oligarchy, which limited power to a small group of men. Athenian democracy encouraged citizens to use their voice and consequently make an impact on their society. The governmentRead MoreThe Use of Rhetoric In Athenian Democracy Essay1814 Words   |  8 PagesRhetoric was a major factor in the development and maintenance of the Athenian government and was used by many in order to gain power and ascend in politics. The ascendance of the great demagogues in Athens during the time of the Peloponnesian war was heavily influenced by their rhetoric and ability to effectively guide the Athenian democracy. The democratic government was composed of two gr oups: â€Å"public speakers [†¦], those who made proposals and publicly argued for or against political projectsRead MoreEvolution of Democracy and the Athenian Constitution Essay4268 Words   |  18 PagesEvolution of Democracy and the Athenian Constitution Democracy is defined in modern times as government by the people. To put that in perspective and better understand all that democracy entails we must consider its origins. 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AlthoughRead MoreThe Athenian Democracy Compared to Todays Democracy1904 Words   |  8 Pages The term democracy comes from the Greek language and means rule by the people.(Democracy Building 2012) The democracy in Athens represents the events leading up to modern day democracies. Like our modern democracy, the Athenian democracy was created as a reaction to a concentration and abuse of power by the rulers. Philosophers defined the essential elements of democracy as a separation of powers, basic civil rights, human rights, religious liberty and separation of church and state. TheRead MoreEssay on Athenian definition of democracy1213 Words   |  5 Pages Discuss the Athenian definition of democracy. Is the city s tate the only kind of state in which true democracy can exist? What happens to democracy when it is applied to a society with a large dispersed population? What are other examples of democratic societies besides Athens? 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Although it was called a democratic system, only male citizens had the opportunity to participate. In this essay, I will discuss how the Athenian democratic system was developed, why, and the efforts of the Greek thinkers in developing the Athenian democracy. Additionally, we will have the chance to examine if it was truly democratic. The Athenian democracyRead MoreWhat are the Unique Traits of Athenian Democracy? Essay918 Words   |  4 Pages 29 September 2013 What are the Unique Traits of Athenian Democracy? There are several traits that make Athenian democracy unique not only in the ancient world but also in the modern world as well. For the first time in recorded history, citizens had a say in what laws were to govern them . Democracy was an unknown and alien concept in the ancient world, and Athenians knew that their political process was different in and they were intensely proud of it. â€Å"Our form of government does not enterRead MoreComparing US Democratic Republic, Roman Republic, and Athenian Democracy Governments647 Words   |  3 Pages In the past, different civilizations have been ruled by different forms of government. The U.S. Democratic Republic, the Roman Republic, and the Athenian Democracy have similar and different functions of how they run their government. In the U.S. Democratic Republic, it has all three branches of government which are the legislature, executive, and the judicial branch. Their legislative branch has a Senate of 100 members and theyre elected by the people for a six-year-term. The Senates make laws